Anatomy of the Eye

1. Eye Model inside skull
2. Eye model Cross-Section
3. Eye Model w/ Blood Supply
4. Eye Model W/ Nerves
5. Eye & Skull
6. Eye Socket

Anatomy of Eye Introduction
Even though the eye is small, only about 1 inch in diameter, it serves a very important function – your sense of sight. Vision is arguably the most used of the 5 senses and is one of the primary means that we use to gather information from our surroundings.

The eye is often compared to a camera. Each gathers light and then transforms that light into a “picture”. Both also have lenses to focus the incoming light. A camera uses a film to create a picture, whereas the eyes uses a specialized layer of cells, called the retina.

Anatomy of the Brain

Glossary of Terms for an Anatomy of the Brain

Amygdala - limbic structure involved in many brain functions, including emotion, learning and memory. It is part of a system that processes “reflexive” emotions like fear and anxiety.

Cerebellum - governs movement.

Cingulate gyrus - plays a role in processing conscious emotional experience.

Fornix - an arch-like structure that connects the hippocampus to other parts of the limbic system.

Frontal lobe - helps control skilled muscle movements, mood, planning for the future, setting goals and judging priorities.

Hippocampus - plays a significant role in the formation of long-term memories.

Medulla oblongata - contains centers for the control of vital processes such as heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing.

Limbic system - a group of interconnected structures that mediate emotions, learning and memory.

Occipital lobe - helps process visual information.

Parahippacampal gyrus - an important connecting pathway of the limbic system.

Parietal lobe - receives and processes information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement coming from the rest of the body. Reading and arithmetic are also processed in this region.

Pons - contains centers for the control of vital processes, including respiration and cardiovascular functions. It also is involved in the coordination of eye movements and balance.

Temporal lobe - processes hearing, memory and language functions.

Thalamus - a major relay station between the senses and the cortex (the outer layer of the brain consisting of the parietal, occipital, frontal and temporal lobes).

The Interior of the Heart

The illustration shows a cross-section of a healthy heart and its inside structures. The blue arrow shows the direction in which low-oxygen blood flows from the body to the lungs. The red arrow shows the direction in which oxygen-rich blood flows from the lungs to the rest of the body.

The Septum
The right and left sides of your heart are divided by an internal wall of tissue called the septum. The area of the septum that divides the two upper chambers (atria) of your heart is called the atrial or interatrial septum. The area of the septum that divides the two lower chambers (ventricles) of your heart is called the ventricular or interventricular spetum.

The Exterior of the Heart

The illustration shows the front surface of the heart, including the coronary arteries and major blood vessels.

The heart is the muscle in the lower half of the picture. The heart has four chambers. The right and left atria (AY-tree-uh) are shown in purple. The right and left ventricles (VEN-trih-kuls) are shown in red.

Connected to the heart are some of the main blood vessels—arteries and veins—that make up your blood circulatory system.

The ventricle on the right side of your heart pumps blood from the heart to your lungs. When you breathe air in, oxygen passes from your lungs through blood vessels where it’s added to your blood. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, is passes from your blood through blood vessels to your lungs and is removed from your body when you breathe air out.

The atrium on the left side of your heart receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. The pumping action of your left ventricle sends this oxygen-rich blood through the aorta (a main artery) to the rest of your body.

Anatomy of the Heart

Your heart is located under the ribcage in the center of your chest between your right and left lung. It’s shaped like an upside-down pear. Its muscular walls beat, or contract, pumping blood continuously to all parts of your body.

The size of your heart can vary depending on your age, size, or the condition of your heart. A normal, healthy, adult heart most often is the size of an average clenched adult fist. Some diseases of the heart can cause it to become larger.

Human Skeleton

A typical adult human skeleton commonly consists of 206, 208 or more bones depending on the method used in counting normal variations. The count of 208 considers the sternum to be made up of three bones instead of one; manubrium, body of sternum (also known as the gladiolus) and xiphoid process. Anatomical variation may also result in the formation of more or fewer bones. More common variations include cervical ribs or an additional lumbar vertebra. Babies are born with around 300 to 350 bones, many of which fuse together during growth.

DNA Humans

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules.

The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

Double Helix DNA

In geometry a double helix typically consists of two congruent helices with the same axis, differing by a translation along the axis, which may or may not be half-way.

In molecular biology, the double helix refers to the structure of DNA. The double-helix model of DNA structure was first published in the journal Nature by James D. Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 based upon the crucial X-ray diffraction image of DNA from Rosalind Franklin in 1952.

The DNA double helix is a right-handed spiral polymer of nucleic acids, held together by nucleotides which base pair together. A single turn of the helix constitutes ten nucleotides. The double helix structure of DNA contains a major groove and minor groove, many proteins which bind to DNA do so through the wider major groove.

Liver

Sheep Liver

The liver is vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. The liver is necessary for survival; there is currently no way to compensate for the absence of liver function.

The liver plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the thoracic region of the abdomen. It produces bile, an alkaline compound which aids in digestion, via the emulsification of lipids.

It also performs and regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions requiring highly specialized tissues, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions.

Headphone & Speaker

Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers, or less commonly a single speaker, with a way of holding them close to a user’s ears and a means of connecting them to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio or CD player.

They are also known as earphones, earbuds, stereophones, headsets or, informally cans. In the context of telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of headphone and microphone used for two-way communication, for example with a telephone.

Monitor

A monitor or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is a piece of electrical equipment which displays images generated by devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure.

Printer

In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy or documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most newer printers, a USB cable to a computer which serves as a document source. Some printers, commonly known as network printers, have built-in network interfaces, and can serve as a hardcopy device for any user on the network.

In addition, a few modern printers can directly interface to electronic media such as memory sticks or memory cards, or to image capture devices such as digital cameras, scanners; some printers are combined with a scanners and/or fax machines in a single unit, and can function as photocopiers. Printers that include non-printing features are sometimes called Multifunction Printers (MFP), Multi-Function Devices (MFD), or All-In-One (AIO) printers.

Keyboard

In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modelled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, which act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.

Mouse

A mouse a small device that you can use to move, select and open items displayed on your monitor.

A standard mouse has a left and a right button. You use the left button to select items and provide instructions by clicking an active area on the screen.

You use the right button to display commonly used menu items on the screen.

Most mouse devices also have a wheel that help you to scroll through documents or pages.

Webcam

Webcams are video capture devices connected to computers or computer networks, often using a USB port or, if they connect to networks, via Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

Their most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a computer to act as a videophone or video conferencing station. Other popular uses, which include the recording of video files or even still-images, are accessible via numerous software programs, applications and devices.

Scanner

In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common examples found in offices are variations of the desktop scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning “wands” to 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement, orthotics, gaming and other applications.

Microphone

A microphone, sometimes colloquially called a mic or mike is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking.

The most common design today uses a thin membrane which vibrates in response to sound pressure. This movement is subsequently translated into an electrical signal. Most microphones is use today for audio use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance change (condenser microphone, pictured right), piezoelectric generation, or light modulation to produce the signal from mechanical vibration.

Desktop Computers

Desktop computers are made up of individual components, such as a monitor, a keyboard, a system unit, and a printer. Desktop computers are not portable and are generally placed on the surface of a desk or a table. Desktop computers usually have more memory, a larger hard drive, more ports, and a bigger display than laptops and other portable computers.

Laptop Computers

Laptop computers are lightweight personal computers. Laptop computers are smaller in size as compared to a desktop computer and are designed for travel. Laptop computers are also called notebook computers.

Desktop computers run on electricity only, while laptop computers run on electricity or on batteries that can be recharged. Laptop computers perform the same tasks as desktop computers, but laptop computers generally cost more than desktop computers.

Tablet Computers

Tablet computers are fully functional computers that allow you to write directly on the screen by using a tablet pen. You can also use the tablet pen to perform mouse functions. Tablet computers, therefore, do not need a keyboard and a mouse.

Handheld Computers

Handheld computers are devices used for specific everyday tasks, such as managing personal data. These are smaller than laptops and provide fewer features compared to desktop computers or laptops. These can also perform basic word-processing activities and help you access the Internet.

Football

Football is the word given to a number of similar team sports, all of which involve kicking a ball with the foot in an attempt to score a goal. The most popular of these sports worldwide is association football, more commonly known as just “football” or “soccer”.

The English language word “football” is also applied to “gridiron football” (a name associated with the North American sports, especially American football and Canadian football), Australian football, Gaelic football, rugby football, and related games. Each of these codes is referred to as “football”.

Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of water waves (called a tsunami wave train) that is caused when a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. The Japanese term is literally translated into “harbour wave”.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (detonations of nuclear devices at sea), landslides and other mass movements, bolide impacts, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, the effects of tsunamis can be devastating.

The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunami to submarine quakes, but understanding of the nature of tsunami remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research.

Many early geological. Geographical, and oceanographic texts refer to tsunamis as “seismic sea waves”.

Museums

A museum is a “permanent institution in the service of society and of its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment, for the purposes of education, study, and enjoyment”, as defined by the International Council of Museums.

There are tens of thousands of museums all over the world. For a relatively short list, see the List of Museums. The museums of ancient times, such as the Museum of Alexandria, would be equivalent to a modern graduate institute. The modern meaning of the word can be traced to the Museum of Pergamon in Anatolia, which displayed artwork.

Types of Museums

There are many types of museums, from very large collections in major cities, covering many of the categories below, to very small museums covering either a particular location in a general way, or a particular subject, such an individual notable person. Categories include: Fine Arts, Applied Arts, Craft, Archaeology, Anthropology and Ethnology, History, Cultural History, Military History, Science, Technology, Children’s Museums, Natural History, Numismatics, Botanical and Zoological Gardens and Philately.

Within these categories many museums specialize further, e.g. museums of modern art, local history, aviation history, agricultural or geology. A museum normally house a core collection of important selected objects in its field. Objects are formally accessioned by being registered in the museum’s collection with an artefact number and details recorded about their provenance. The persons in charge of the collection and of the exhibits are known as curators.

Archaeology Museums

Archaeology Museums
Archaeology Museums specialize in the display of archaeological artifacts. Many are in the open air, such as the Acropolis of Athens and the Roman Forum. Others display artifacts found in archaeological sites inside buildings.

Maritime Museums
Maritime Museums specialize of objects relating to ships and travel on seas and lakes. They may include a historic ship (or a replica) made accessible as a museum ship.

Art Museums

An Art Museum, also known as an art gallery, is a space for the exhibition of art, usually in the form of art objects from the visual arts, primarily paintings, illustrations, and sculpture. Collections of drawings and old master prints are often not displayed on the walls, but kept in a print room. There may be collections of applied art, including ceramics, metalwork, furniture, artist’s books and other types of object. Video Art is often screened.

The first publicly owned museum in Europe was the Amerbach-Cabinet in Basel, originally a private collection sold to the city in 1661 and public since 1671 (now Kunstmuseum Basel). The Uffizi Gallery in Florence was initially conceived as a palace for the offices of Florentian magistrates (hence the name), it later envolved into a display place form many of the paintings and sculpture collection by the Medici family or commissioned by them. After the house of Medici was extinguished, the art treasures remained in Florence, forming one of the first modern museums.

Military and War Museums

Military Museums specialize in military histories; they are often organized from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular country will have displays organized around conflicts in which that country has taken part. They typically include displays of weapons and other military equipment, uniforms, wartime propaganda and exhibits on civilian life during wartime, and decorations, among others.

A military museums may be dedicated to a particular service or area, such as the Imperial War Museum Duxford for military aircraft or the Deutsches Panzermuseum for tanks, or more generalist, such as the Canadian War Museum.

Children’s Museum

Children’s Museum are institutions that provide exhibits and programs to stimulate informal learning experiences for children. In contrast with traditional museums that typically have a hands-off policy regarding exhibits, children’s museums feature interactive exhibits that are designed to be manipulated by children. The theory behind such exhibits is that activity can be as educational as instruction, especially in early childhood. Most children’s museums are non profit organizations, and many are run by volunteers or by very small professional staffs.

International professional organizations of children’s museums include the Association of Children’s Museums, which was formed in 1962 as the American Association of Youth Museums and in 2007 counted 341 member institutions in 23 countries.

Natural History Museums

Museums of natural history and natural science typically exhibit work of the natural world. The focus lies on nature and culture. Exhibitions may educate the masses about dinosaurs, ancient history and anthropology, Evolution, environmental issues, and biodiversity are major areas in natural science museums.

Notable museums of this type include the Natural History Museum in London, the Oxford University Museum of Natural History in Oxford, the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., the American Museum of Natural History in New York, the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller, Alberta, Denver Museum of Nature & Science and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.

Science Museums

Science Museums and technology centers revolve around scientific achievements, and marvels and their history. To explain complicated inventions, a combination of demonstrations, interactive programs and thought-provoking media are used. Some museums may have exhibits on topics such as computers, aviation, railway museums, physics, astronomy and the animal kingdom.

Also new virtual museums, known as Net Museums, have recently been created. These are usually web sites belonging to real museums and containing photo galleries of items found in those real museums. This new presentation is very useful for people living far away who wish to see the contents of these museums.

Open Air Museums

Open Air Museums collect and re-erect old buildings at large outdoor sites, usually in setting of recreated landscapes of the past. The first one was King Oscar II’s collection near Oslo in Norway, opened in 1881 and is now the Norsk Folkemuseum.
Most open air museums are located in regions where wooden architecture prevail, as wooden structures may be translocated without substantial loss of authenticity. A more recent but related idea is realized in ecomuseums, which originated in France.

Cricket

Cricket is a bat-and-ball team sport that is first documented as being played in southern England in the 16th century. By the end of the 18th century, cricket had developed to the point where it had become the national sport of England. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international matches were being held. Today, the sport is played in more than 100 countries although it is most popular in the Test playing countries of Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka and the West Indies. It has between 2 and 3 billion fans worldwide, including 1.5 billion in the Indian subcontinent.

The rules of the game are known as the Laws of Cricket. These are maintained by the International Cricket Council (ICC), the governing body of cricket, and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), the club that has been the guardian of the Laws since it was founded in 1787.

A cricket match is played on a cricket field at the centre of which is a pitch. The match is contested between two teams of eleven players each.

In cricket, one team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible without being dismissed (“out”) while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the other team’s batsmen and limit any runs being scored. When the batting team has used all its available overs or has no remaining batsmen, the roles become reversed and it is now the fielding team’s turn to bat and try to outscore the opposition.

Pitch, wickets and creases

The pitch is 22 yd (one chain) long between the wickets and is 10 feet (3.0 m) wide. It is a flat surface and has very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses. The “condition” of the pitch has a significant bearing on the match and team tactics are always determined with the state of the pitch, both current and anticipated, as a deciding factor.

Each wicket consists of three wooden stumps placed in a straight line and surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called bails; the total height of the wicket including bails is 28.5 inches (720 mm) and the combined width of the three stumps is 9 inches (230 mm).

Four lines, known as creases, are painted onto the pitch around the wicket areas to define the batsman’s “safe territory” and to determine the limit of the bowler’s approach. These are called the “popping” (or batting) crease, the bowling crease and two “return” creases.

When bowling the ball, the bowler’s back foot in his “delivery stride” must land within the two return creases while his front foot must land on or behind the popping crease. If the bowler breaks this rule, the umpire calls “No ball”.

Bat and Ball

The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his end of the pitch towards the batsman who, armed with a bat is “on strike” at the other end.

The bat is made of wood (usually White Willow) and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle. The blade must not be more than 4.25 inches (108 mm) wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 inches (970 mm).

The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid with a circumference of 9 inches (230 mm). The hardness of the ball, which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 miles per hour (140 km/h), is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing including pads (designed to protect the knees and shins), batting gloves for the hands, a helmet for the head and a box inside the trousers (to protect the crotch area). Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads, arm pads, rib protectors and shoulder pads.

Umpires and scorers

The game on the field is regulated by two umpires, one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler's end, the other in a position called "square leg". When the bowler delivers the ball, the umpire at the wicket is between the bowler and the non-striker. The umpires confer if there is doubt about playing conditions and can postpone the match by taking the players off the field if necessary, for example rain or deterioration of the light.

Off the field and in televised matches, there is often a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence.

Off the field, the match details including runs and dismissals are recorded by two official scorers, one representing each team. The scorers are directed by the hand signals of an umpire.

Innings

The innings (ending with ‘is’ in both singular and plural form) is the term used for the collective performance of the batting side. In theory, all eleven members of the batting side take a turn to bat but, for various reasons, an “innings” can end before they all do so.

Depending on the type of match being played, each team has one or two innings a piece. The term “innings” is also sometimes used to describe an individual batsman’s contribution.
The main aim of the bowler, supported by his fielders, is to dismiss the batsman. A batsman when dismissed is said to be “out” and that means he must leave the field of play and be replaced by the next batsman on his team. When ten batsmen have been dismissed, then the whole team is dismissed and the innings is over. The last batsman, the one who has not been dismissed, is not allowed to continue alone as there must always be two batsmen “in”. This batsman is termed “no out”.

Overs

The bowler bowls the ball in sets of six deliveries (or “balls”) and each set balls is called an over. This name came about because the umpire calls “Over!” when six balls have been bowled. At this point, another bowler is deployed at the other end and the fielding side changes ends. A bowler cannot bowl two successive overs, although a bowler can bowl unchanged at the same end for several overs.

The batsmen do not change ends and so the one who was non-striker is now the striker and vice-verse. The umpires also change positions so that the one who was at square leg now stands behind the wicket at the non-striker’s end and vice-versa.

Team Structure

A team consists of eleven players. Depending on his or her primary skills, a player may be classified as a specialist batsman or bowler. A well-balanced team usually has five or six specialist batsman and four or five specialist bowlers. Teams nearly always include a specialist wicket-keeper because of the importance of this fielding position. Each team is headed by a captain who is responsible for making tactical decisions such as determining the batting order, the placement of fielders and the rotation of bowlers.

A player who excels in both batting and bowling is known as an all-rounder. One who excels as a batsman and wicket-keeper is known as a “wicket-keeper/batsman”, sometimes regarded as a type of all-rounder. True all-rounders are rare as most players focus on either batting or bowling skills.

Bowling

The bowler reaches his delivery stride by means of a “run-up”, although some bowlers with a very slow delivery take no more than a couple of steps before bowling. A fast bowler needs momentum and takes quite a long run-up, running very fast as he does so.

The fastest bowlers can deliver the ball at a speed of over 90 miles per hour (140 km/h) and they sometimes relay on sheer speed to try and defeat the batsman, who is forced to react very quickly. Other fast bowlers rely on a mixture of speed and guile. Some fast bowlers make use of the seam of the ball so that it “curves” or “swings” in flight. This type of delivery can deceive a batsman into mistiming his shot so that the ball touches the edge of the bat and can then be “caught behind” by the wicketkeeper or a slip fielder.

Fielding

All eleven players on the fielding side take the field together. One of them is the wicket-keeper ka “keeper” who operates behind the wicket being defended by the batsman on strike. Wicket-keeping is normally a specialist occupation and his primary job is to gather deliveries that the batsman does not hit, so that the batsmen cannot run byes.

He wears special gloves (he is the only fielder allowed to do so), and pads to cover his lower legs. Owing to his position directly behind the striker, the wicket-keeper has a good chance of getting a batsman out caught off a fine edge from the bat. He is the only player who can get a batsman our stumped.

The captain is the most important member of the fielding side as he determines all the tactics including who should bowl (and how); and he is responsible for “setting the field”, though usually in consultation with the bowler.

Batting

At any one time, there are two batsmen in the playing area. One takes station at the striker's end to defend the wicket as above and to score runs if possible. His partner, the non-striker, is at the end where the bowler is operating.

Batsmen come in to bat in a batting order, decided by the team captain. The first two batsmen – the "openers" – usually face the most hostile bowling, from fresh fast bowlers with a new ball. The top batting positions are usually given to the most competent batsmen in the team, and the non-batsmen typically bat last. The pre-announced batting order is not mandatory and when a wicket falls any player who has not yet batted may be sent in next.

If a batsman "retires" (usually due to injury) and cannot return, he is actually "not out" and his retirement does not count as a dismissal, though in effect he has been dismissed because his innings is over. Substitute batsmen are not allowed.

A skilled batsman can use a wide array of “shots” or “strokes” in both defensive and attacking mode. The idea is to hit the ball to best effect with the flat surface of the bat’s blade. If the ball touches the side of the bat it is called an “edge”.

Runs

The primary concern of the batsman on strike (i.e., the “striker”) is to prevent the ball hitting the wicket and secondarily to score runs by hitting the ball with his bat so that he and his partner have time to run from one end of the pitch to the other before the fielding side can return the ball. To register a run, both runners must touch the ground behind the crease with either their bats or their bodies (the batsmen carry their bats as they run). Each completed run increments the score.

Hits for five are unusual and generally rely on the help of “overthrows” by a fielder returning the ball. If an odd number of runs is scored by the striker, the two batsmen have changed ends and the one who was non-striker is now the striker. Only the striker can score individual runs but all runs are added to the team’s total.

The decision to attempt a run is ideally made by the batsman who has the better view of the ball’s progress, and this is communicated by calling; “yes”, “no” and “wait” are often heard. Running is a calculated risk because if a fielder breaks the wicket with the ball while the nearest batsman is out of his ground, the batsman is run out.

Test Cricket

Test cricket is the highest standard of first-class cricket. A Test match is an international fixture between teams representing those countries that are Full Members of the ICC.
Although the team “Test Match” was not coined until much later, Test cricket is deemed to have begun with two matches between Australia and England in the 1876-77 Australian season.

Subsequently, eight other national teams have achieved Test status: South Africa (1889), West Indies (1928), New Zealand (1929), India (1932), Pakistan (1952), Sri Lanka (1982), Zimbabwe (1992) and Bangladesh (2000). Zimbabwe subsequently suspended its Test status in 2006 due to its inability to compete against other Test teams and has yet to resume playing Test Criket.

Digital camera

A digital camera is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor.

Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still photographs. In the Western market, digital cameras outsell their 35 mm film counterparts.

Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot displaying images on a screen immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small memory device, recording video with sound, and deleting images to free storage space.

Compact digital cameras

Compact cameras are designed to be small and portable and are particularly suitable for casual and “snapshot” use, thus are also called point-and-shoot camera. The smallest, generally less than 20 mm thick, are described as subcompacts or “ultra-compacts”. Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use, sacrificing advanced features and picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG).

Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo. They may have limited motion picture capability. Compacts often have macro capability, but if they have zoom capability the range is usually less than for bridge and DSLR cameras. They have a greater depth of field, allowing objects within a large range of distances from the camera to be in sharp focus.

Bridge cameras

Bridge or SLR-like cameras are higher-end digital cameras that physically resemble DSLRs and share with them some advanced features, but share with compacts the framing of the photo using live preview and small sensor sizes.

Bridge cameras often have superzoom lenses which provide a very wide zoom range, typically between 10:1 and 18:1, which is attained at the cost of some distortions, including barrel and pincushion distortion, to a degree which varies with lens quality. These cameras are sometimes marketed as and confused with digital SLR cameras since the appearance is similar.

Bridge cameras lack the mirror and reflex system of DSLRs, have so far been fitted with fixed (non-interchangeable) lenses (although in some cases accessory wide-angle or telephoto converters can be attached to the lens), can usually take movies with sound, and the scene is composed by viewing either the liquid crystal display or the electronic viewfinder (EVF).

Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels.

The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world’s worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine and Zambia.

Air Pollution

Air Pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth’s ecosystems.

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human, animal or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. A common form of noise pollution is from transportation, principally motor vehicles. The word noise comes from the Latin word Nausea meaning seasickness.

The source of most noise worldwide is transportation system, motor vehicle noise, but also including aircraft noise and rail noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area.

Other sources are car alarms, emergency service sirens, office equipment, factory machinery, construction work, groundskeeping equipment, barking dogs, appliances, power tools, lighting hum, audio entertainment systems, loud speakers and noisy people.

Land Pollution

Land Pollution is the degradation of Earth’s land surfaces often caused by human activities and their misuse of land resources. It occurs when waste is not disposed properly. Haphazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices are a few factors. Urbanization and industrialisation are major causes of land pollution. The Industrial Revolution set a series of events into motion which destroyed natural habitats and polluted the environment, causing diseases in both humans and animals.

Water Pollution

Water Pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater caused by human activities, which can be harmful to organisms and plants that live in these water bodies. It occurs when pollutants are discharged directly into water bodies without treating it first.

Water Pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well.

Machine

A machine is any device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work. A simple machine is a device that transforms the direction or magnitude of a force without consuming any energy. The word “machine” is derived from the Latin machine.

Machine Usage

Historically, a device required moving parts to be classified as a machine; however, the advent of electronics technology has led to the development of devices without moving parts that are considered machines – the computer being the most obvious example.

“Engines” are machines that convert heat or other forms of energy into mechanical energy. For example, in an internal combustion engine the expansion of gases caused by the heat from an exothermic chemical reaction results in a force being applied to a movable component, such as a piston or turbine blade.

Machines are ubiquitous in a wide variety of industrial, commercial, residential and transportation applications. Those employing hydraulics are especially useful in manufacturing and construction.

Types of machines and related components

Simple Machines:
Inclined plane, Wheel and axle, Lever, Pulley, Wedge, Screw

Mechanical Components:
Axle, Bearings, Belts, Bucket, Fastener, Gear, Key, Link Chains, Rack and pinion, Roller chains, Rope, Seals, Spring, Wheel.

Clock:
Atomic clock, Chronometer, Pendulum Clock, Quartz Clock.

Compressors and Pumps:
Archimedes’ screw, Eductor-jet Pump, Hydraulic ram, Pump, Tuyau, Vacuum Pump

Heat Engines:
External Combustion Engines:
Steam Engine, Stirling Engine.

Internal Combustion Engines:
Reciprocating engine, Gas turbine.

Linkages:
Pantograph, Peaucellier-Lupkin.

Turbine:
Gas turbine, Jet Engine, Steam tubine, Water turbine, Wind generator, Windmill.

Electronics:
Vacuum tube, Transistor, Diode, Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor.

Miscellaneous:
Robot, Vending Machine, Wind tunnel, Check Weighing Machines, Riveting Machines.

Snakes

Snakes are elongate legless carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Like lizards, from which they evolved, they have loosely articulated skulls and most can swallow prey much larger than their own head. In order to accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes’ paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. Fifteen families are currently recognized comprising 456 genera and over 2900 species. They range in size from the tiny, 10 cm long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in lenth.

Most species are non-venomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans.

Anaconda

An Anaconda is a large, non-venomous snake found in tropical South America. They are found mostly in water, such as the Amazon River. Although the name actually applies to a group of snakes, it is often used to refer only to one species in particular, the common or green anaconda, Eunectes murinus, which is one of the largest snakes in the world.

Anaconda may refer to:
Any member of the genus Eunectes, group of large, aquatic snakes found in South America.

The giant anaconda, a mythical snake of enormous proportions found in South America.

Any large snake that “Crushes” its prey by constricting (see Constriction). Applied loosely.

Computer

Computers help organizations and individuals to conduct business transactions efficiently and quickly. In today’s world, one of the basic skills necessary to succeed at a workplace is to know how to use the computer. Computers are used in every field. To be able to get better jobs, you need to know how to use a computer.

This module explains the role of computers and the basic concepts about the parts of a computer. This module also explains how to use a computer in different aspects of life.

Computers have transformed the way people conduct business transactions and perform their daily tasks. With computers, you can maintain your monthly budget, create business reports, do your project work, listen to music, watch movies, and even create drawings just as you would do on paper.

The growth in the field of computers has lead to development of new technologies for creation, storage, and transfer of data over a group of computers. This group of technologies is collectively called Information Technology (IT).
You do not need to have much technical knowledge to work on a computer. Just about anyone can learn to use one. The only two requirements are to have patience and determination.

This module explains the basic concepts related to computers and also familiarizes you with the components that make up the computer. In addition, this module familiarizes you with the various tools that will help you perform your daily tasks.

Input Device

An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system (such as a computer). Input and Output devices make up the hardware interface between a computer as a scanner or 6DOF controller.


History

A definition of an input device was already included within the von Neumann architecture in 1945, however conception of an architecture including similar devices designed for input only appear since 1936. The von Neumann architecture describes a device designed for inserting user data, which are separated from the algorithm data and code. These devices included a keyboard or a punched card. Computer mice were invented by Doug Engelbart in the 1960s.


Input Devices:

Keyboard

Mouse

Scanner

Microphone

Webcam

Output Device

An Output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world.

In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent by the system to the outside.

The most common input devices used by the computer are the keyboard and mouse. The keyboard allows the entry of textual information while the mouse allows the selection of a point on the screen by moving a screen cursor to the point and pressing a mouse button. The most common outputs are monitors and speakers.


Output Devices are

Monitor

Printer

Speaker

Headphone

Storage Device

A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs.

A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to store and retrieve information.


With the exception of barcodes and OCR data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing (rewriting) data on the same medium. However, the durability of methods such as printed data is still superior to that of most electronic storage media. The durability limitations may be overcome with the ease of duplicating (backing-up) electronic data.


Any input/output equipment may be considered data storage equipment if it writers to and reads from a data storage medium.


You use storage devices to store computer information. Storage devices come in many forms. Some examples are hard drive or disk, CD-ROM, floppy disk, and DVD-ROM. Storage devices can be divided into two types, internal storage devices and external storage devices.

Central Process Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is a device that interprets and runs the commands that you give to the computer. It is the control unit of a computer. The CPU is also referred to as the processor.

Memory is where information is stored and retrieved by the CPU. There are two main types of memory.


· Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the main memory and allows you to temporarily store commands and data. The CPU reads data and commands from RAM to perform specific tasks. RAM is volatile, which means it is available only while the computer is turned on. The contents of RAM must be copied to a storage device if you want to save the data in the RAM.


· Read Only Memory (ROM): It is the memory that retains its contents even after the computer is turned off. ROM is nonvolatile, or permanent, memory that is commonly used to store commands, such as the commands that check whether everything is working properly.

Tower of Pisa

The Learning Tower of Pisa or simply The Tower of Pisa is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa. It is situated behind the cathedral and is the third oldest structure in Pisa’s Cathedral Square after the cathedral and the baptistry.

Although intended to stand vertically, the tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in 1173 due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction. The tower presently leans to the southwest.

The height of the tower is 55.86m (183.27ft) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m (186.02ft) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m (8.14 ft). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).

The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. The tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees, but after the restoration works between 1990 and 2001 the tower leans at an angle of 3.99 degrees. This means that the top of the tower is 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from where it would stand if the tower were perfectly vertical.

The Architect

There has been controversy about the real identify of the architect of the Learning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano, a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Bonanno Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town.

A piece of cast with his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related to the bronze door in the facade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. However recent studies seem to indicate Diotisalvi as the original architect due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola (Pisa) and the Baptistery in Pisa. However, he usually signed his works and there is no signature by him in the bell tower which leads to further speculation.

The Tower of Pisa was a work of art, performed in three stages over a period of about 177 years. Construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on August 9, 1173, a period of military success and prosperity. This first floor is surrounded by pillars with classical capitals, leaning against blind arches.

After a phase (1990-2001) of structural strengthening, the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visual damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly strong due to the tower’s age and to its particular conditions with respect to wind and rain.

Mammal

Mammals are a class of vertebrate animals whose females are characterized by the possession of mammary glands while both males and females are characterized by sweat glands, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain.

Except for the five species of monotremes (which lay eggs), all mammal species give birth to live young. Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during gestation. The mammalian brain regulates endothermic and circuolatory systems, including a four-chambered heart.

There are approzimately 5,400 species of mammals, distributed in abouy 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders (though this varies by classification scheme). Mammals range in size from the 30-40 millimetre (1.2-1.6 in) Bumblebee Bat to the 33-metre (110 ft) Blue Whale.

The mammalian line of descent diverged from an amniote line at the end of the Carboniferous period. One line of amniotes would lead to reptiles, while the other would lead to synapsids, including mammals. The first true mammals appeared in the Triassic period. Modern Mammalian orders appeared in the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs of the Palaeogene period.

Jurassic

The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 199.6± 0.6 Ma (million years ago) to 145.5± 4 Ma, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic era, also known as the “Age of Reptiles”. The start of the period is marked by the major Triassic Jurassic extinction event. However the end of the Jurassic Period did not witness any major extinction event. The start and end of the period are defined by carefully selected location; the uncertainty in dating arises from trying to date these horizons.

The chronostratigraphic term Jurassic is directly linked to the Swiss Jura Mountains. Alexander von Humboldt (1769, 1859) recognized the mainly limestone dominated mountain range of the Swiss Jura Mountains as a separate formation that was not at the time included in the established stratigraphic system defined by Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749, 1817) and named it “Jurakalk” in 1795. The name “Jura” is derived from the celtic root “jor” which was latinised into “Juria”, meaning forest (i.e. “Jura” is forest mountains).

Egyptian Pyramids

The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian Pyramids – huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions. There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. Until Lincoln Cathedral was built in 1400 AD, it was the tallest building in the world. The base is over 52,600 square metres in area. Egypt has the most pyramids in the world, with Sudan coming in at a close second.

It was one of the Seven wonders of the world, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians covered their faces with polished white limestone, though most of the stones used for the purpose have fallen or have been removed and used to build the mosques of Cairo.

Research

Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the Universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.

Scientific Research

Scientific Research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organisations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:

Formation to the topic
Hypothesis
Conceptual definitions
Operational definitions
Gathering of data
Analysis of data
Test, revising of hypothesis
Conclusion, iteration if necessary

Internet Research

Internet Research is the practice of using the Internet, especially the World Wide Web, for research. To the extent that the Internet is widely and readily accessible to hundreds of millions of people in many parts of the world, it can provide practically instant information on most topics, and is having a profound impact on the way in which ideas are formed and knowledge is created.

Research is a broad term. Here, it is used to mean "looking something up (on the Web)". It includes any activity where a topic is identified, and an effort is made to actively gather information for the purpose of furthering understanding. Common applications of Internet research include personal research on a particular subject (something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc), students doing research for academic projects and papers, and journalists and other writers researching stories.

It should be distinguished from scientific research - research following a defined and rigorous process - carried out on the Internet; from straightforward finding of specific info, like locating a name or phone number; and from research about the Internet.

Social Research

Social Research refers to research conducted by social scientists (primarily within sociology and social psychology), but also within other disciplines such as social policy, human geography, political science, social anthropology and education.

Sociologists and other social scientists study diverse things: from census data on hundreds of thousands of human beings, through the in-depth analysis of the life of a single important person to monitoring what is happening on a street today – or what happening a few hundred years ago.

Common tools of quantitative researchers include surveys, questionnaires, and secondary analysis of statistical data that has been gathered for other purposes (for example, censuses or the results of social attitudes surveys). Commonly used qualitative methods include focus, groups, participant observation, and other techniques.

Research and development

The phrase research and development (also R and D or, more often , R&D), according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, refers to “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications”.

Business
Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers.
Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result.

Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian Independence movement. He was the pioneer of satyagraha resistance to tyranny through mass civil disobedience, firmly founded upon ahimsa or total non-violence which led india to independence and has inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.

Gandhi is commonly known around the world as Mahatma Gandhi and in India also as Bapu (bapu or Father). He is officially honoured in India as the Father of the Nation; his birthday, 2 October, is commemorated there as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Non-Violence.

Gandhi famously led his followers in the Non-cooperation movement that protested the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (249 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930. Later he campaigned for the British to Quit India. Gandhi spent a number of years in jail in both South Africa and India.


As a practitioner of ahimsa, he swore to speak the truth and advocated that others do the same. Gandhi lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn he had hand spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest.

Kasturbai Gandhi

Kasturba Gandhi (April 11, 1869 – February 22, 1944), affectionately called Ba, was the wife of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, marrying him in an arranged child marriage in 1883.

Kasturba Gandhi was born in Himalaya.

Kasturba Gandhi joined her husband in political protests. She travelled to South Africa in 1897 to be with her husband. From 1904 to 1914, she was active in the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. During the 1913 protest against working conditions for Indians in South Africa, Kasturba was arrested and sentenced to three months in a hard labour prison.

Later, in India, she sometimes took her husband’s place when he was under arrest. In 1915, when Gandhi returned to India to support indigo planters, Kasturba accompanied him. She taught hygiene, discipline, reading and writing to women and children.

Gandhi and his son Devdas Gandhi had a fight over the treatment. Devdas has arranged for penicillin from Calcutta, but Gandhi refused to give it to Kasturba as it had to be injected.

After a short while, Kasturba stopped breathing. She died in Gandhi’s arms while both were still in prison.

Early life and Background

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar, a coastal town in present-day Gujarat, India, on 2 October 1869. His father, Karamchand Gandhi (1822-1885), who belonged to the Hindu Modh community, was the diwan of the eponymous Porbandar state, a small princely state in the Kathiawar Agency of British India. His mother, Putlibai, who came from the Hindu Pranami Vaishnava community, was Karamchand’s fourth wife, the first three wives haveing apparently died in childbirth.

Growing up with a devout mother and the Jain traditions of the region, the young Mohandas absorbed early the influences that would play and important role in his adult life; these included compassion to sentient beings, vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance between individuals of different creeds.

In May 1883, the 13-year old Mohandas was married to 14-year old Kasturbai Makhanji (her first name was usually shortened to “Kasturba”, and affectionately to “Ba”) in an arranged child marriage, as was the custom in the region.

In 1885, when Gandhi was 15, the couple’s first child was born, but survived only a few days; Gandhi’s father, Karamchand Gandhi, had died earlier that year. Mohandas and Kasturba had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.

Gandhi’s Principles Truth

Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself. He called his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth.

Gandhi Stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarized his beliefs first when he said “God is Truth”. He would later change this statement to “Truth is God”. Thus, Satya (Truth) in Gandhi’s philosophy is “God”.

Brahmacharya

When Gandhi was 16 his father became very ill. Being very devoted to his parents, he attended to his father at all times during his illness. However, one night, Gandhi’s uncle came to relieve Gandhi for a while. He retired to his bedroom where carnal desires overcame him and he made love to his wife. Shortly afterward a servant came to report that Gandhi’s father had just died. Gandhi felt tremendous guilt and never could forgive himself. He came to refer to this event as “double shame”. The incident had significant influence in Gandhi becoming celibate at the age of 36, while still married.

This decision was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Brahmacharya – spiritual and practical purity – largely associated with celibacy and asceticism. Gandhi saw Brahmacharya as a means of becoming close with God and as a primary foundation for self realization.

In his autobiography he tells of his battle against lustful urges and fits of jealousy with his childhood bridge, Kasturba. He felt it his personal obligation to remain celibate so that he could learn to love, rather than lust. For Gandhi, Brahmacharya meant “control of the senses in thought, word and deed”.